Daily diet In the Revolutionary Period
In 1776,
What were the newly independent Americans eating to fuel them for the nation-building that lay ahead of them? How much influence did other cultures have on the mainstream diet?
Pictured to the left are replicas of once populous Passenger Pigeons which were used in stews and pies of the time (Simon Pierre Barrette, CC BY-SA 3.0). They later went extinct in 1914.
the crossroads of colonization & food
Click on the images to explore the cookbooks used in 1776.
European Influences
The diet of early Americans was strongly influenced by the effects of colonialism that predated the birth of the nation. When the Europeans came to the Americas in the 15th century, they introduced livestock and recipes from their countries of origin. Culinary anthropologist Lois Ellen Frank explains that this included "sheep, goats, cattle, pigs, the horse, peaches, apricots, plums, cherries, melons, watermelon, apples, grapes and wheat” brought by the Spanish, English, and French. As such, many of the recipes of the early Americans still held connections to their European predecessors.
Indigenous Influences
Indigenous corn crops contained a variety of corn, like the ones shown here (Sam Fentress, CC BY-SA 2.0).
The significance of Indigenous people’s influence on daily diet in 1776 cannot be understated. When the colonists first arrived in the Americas, it was Indigenous communities who taught them how to plant crops that could survive in the Northeastern seasons. One important crop was corn which by 1776 had become a staple ingredient for recipes such as hasty pudding and johnnycakes. Crops such as potatoes and tomatoes from South America had also made their way to Europe and the colonies so that by the eve of the Revolution they were integrated into the cuisine of the time.
Who ate what?
Map of the 13 colonies which declared independence in 1776, with the exception of Vermont and Maine. Click to enlarge. Original map by Richard Zietz with alterations made by Maria Reyes Pacheco under the CC BY-SA 3.0 license.
Geography
There was no typical diet in the colonies and the same could be said of the nascent America. Mealtimes and ingredients differed based on regional customs and crops. For example, rice grew far more plentifully in the South, so recipes more commonly used it as a staple ingredient. Southern dishes were also far more influenced by French and African cuisines given the proximity to French territories and the influence of enslaved Africans.
On the other hand, northern states, such as Connecticut and Delaware, were more influenced by English, German, and Dutch cuisines given the presence of European immigrants from those countries. The New England colonies were also known for their abundant access to and export of fish. As for mealtimes, most settlers shared a standard of three meals a day. Breakfast might consist of bread, cornmeal, milk or tea. Dinner would then be the biggest meal served around midday. This would be followed by a light supper made of leftovers or recipes similar to those served during breakfast.
Social class
Depending on the socioeconomic status of a family, their diets would be limited in the quality and quantity of food they could consume. While most families in the colonies had three meals a day, more affluent families might serve two courses for dinner and would have greater access to imported ingredients from other colonies and countries. Rural families would typically only cook with what they grew themselves or what was locally available. Furthermore, their recipes were typically passed down generation to generation, and it was the women of the house who would cook, as opposed to the hired or enslaved cooks present in wealthier homes.
While the rations as explained in in the following section, were a war-time food source for soldiers, rations were the daily norm for enslaved Africans. Plantation owners often made it a point to record rations when arguing with abolitionists about the treatment of enslaved people. Historians have since noted the importance of gardening and hunting for enslaved people, due to insufficient rations. It is important to note that any personal gardening or hunting would come second to the work of the plantation and was limited based on the access to land and tools.
HERITAGE
Cultural beliefs and traditions also influenced what the day-to-day diet would consist of for someone living in the colonies. The cuisine of Indigenous populations who still resided in these regions would have been impacted by the entrance of new crops and livestock such as sheep and wheat. However, they retained a strong connection to the traditional recipes and ingredients that had been passed down for generations. For example, the tribes of the Haudenosaunee/Iroquois Confederacy (located in parts of New York and Pennsylvania) relied on the “Three Sisters” which consisted of corn, beans, and squash. These three crops were planted together due to their symbiotic relationship which resulted in high yields.
Enslaved Africans also carried knowledge of ancestral recipes and ingredients that were present in foodways across the colonies at this time. In Virginia, the enslaved Igbo population was already familiar with the Okra plant that was imported from West Africa. As such, they were instrumental in cultivating it as a crop and utilizing it in Southern recipes such as stew or gumbo.
European immigrants also brought their own traditional recipes from various countries across the continent. For example, German settlers in South Carolina had developed a palette for sweet-and-sour flavors that were similar to the recipes from home. By 1776, they had created a mustard-based barbecue sauce that continues to be one of the most popular in the state. After nearly 250 years, it can be easy to take for granted the many contributions of so many groups who were present that brought their cuisines while also mixing together to create new recipes and what many today simply overlook as “American” cuisine.
Culinary historian Michael Twitty recreates an Okra recipe from the time period in the video to the below.
War-time food
Following the Boston Tea Party and the Declaration of Independence many colonists boycotted their once staple teas. This resulted in an increase in homemade teas made using local fruits, known as “liberty teas.”
Rations
Soldiers of the Revolutionary War were provided with rations by the Continental Congress, but these portions grew smaller as the war drew on. Portions typically consisted of flour and meat, as well as rum and whiskey to provide a safer alternative to local water sources. When rations weren’t sufficient, civilian gardens and crops would be used in exchange for compensation after the war; nonetheless, this did not erase frustrations among civilians.
Jon Townsend, President of Townsend (an 18th century historic preservation retailer), uses first-hand narratives to recreate what a “ poor soldier’s feast” would have looked like during the war:
Firecakes
“What have you for your Dinners Boys? “Nothing but Fire Cake & Water, Sir.” At night, “Gentlemen the Supper is ready.” What is your Supper Lads? “Fire Cake & Water, Sir.”
This was the account of Albigence Waldo, a well-educated surgeon with the 1st Connecticut Regiment at Valley Forge in 1777. Like others in the battlefield he was more than familiar with the infamous fire cakes which consisted of mere flour and water. Sometimes known as ash cakes, they would harden and last up to a month, making them a staple during the Revolutionary War.
Recipes of the time
Culinary history owes much of its knowledge to the recipes left behind from the time period. As such it is only fitting to share a few recipes. Some are adaptations while others are directly from the cooks of the time.
JOhnnycakes
Roast Pork
Cream Cheese
While some recipes came from Europe, others such as these cornmeal Johnnycakes were distinguishably “American.” Culinary historian Jessica B. Harris explains that “Native Americans originated these hearty cakes, and some food historians believe the word johnnycake comes from the colonial pronunciation of Shawnee cake.”
For times of plenty, this recipe made for a hearty feast. Many of the founding fathers, including George Washington, had hogs on their properties. As such, this recipe from Eliza Smith’s 1727 cookbook (see “The Crossroads of Colonization & Food”) would have been on rotation at their tables. Smith suggests applesauce as an accompaniment for the roast. The Mount Vernon recipe above has been modified by culinary historian Nancy Carter Crump so it can be recreated using modern-day measurements!
Snuck within the Household Accounts of Martha Jefferson is a recipe for “Mrs. Adams’ Cream Cheese” (Library of Congress). While quite different from the methods we use today, the transcription shows the lengthy process and labor that went into making this spread. One might assume the recipe is from Abigail Adams given the two families close relationship however this has never been confirmed.
Module by Maria Reyes Pacheco, with contributions from Sophia Suh. Click here for bibliography.