Voting in the Americas

Voting predates European arrival to the Americas, with the Iroquois Confederacy being an early example of a representative governing body. Established around 1450-1660, the Five Nations were composed of the Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, and Seneca.

The confederacy had a council of 50 chiefs who were appointed by clan mothers; this group would make legislative decisions contingent on unanimous agreement. The Confederacy’s influence on the Continental Congress was openly acknowledged by Benjamin Franklin, and he referenced their model in the Plan of the Union in 1754.

Voting in the colonies

Prior to 1776, the colonies used systems of voting that had been brought over from Europe. As the first colony, Virginia established the General Assembly in 1619, which was made up of the governor, his four councilors, and 22 elected Burgesses. Around the same time in 1620, the pilgrims of the Plymouth Colony (later Massachusetts) would establish a “Civil Body Politic” that would elect the governor and assistants.

These assemblies became the norm for most colonies, with elected representatives then appointing councils who would advise the colonial governor. In some colonies, such as Virginia, the governor was even elected by the House of Burgesses (this right was revoked by Charles II after Bacon’s Rebellion). Elections were called on by the governors of each colony who were sometimes frustrated by the system of shared governance. As such, elections might be held annually, semi-annually, or irregularly based on the decision of the governor.

Voting privileges were exclusively for men and requirements were based on property ownership or the ability to pay taxes. These requirements were based on the prevailing thought of the time that those who had a stake in society could be best trusted to have influence through voting. However, details of how much land was required would vary by time and place. For example, in 1762 the House of Burgesses tried to reduce the unimproved acreage to 50 but it was rejected in England and the 1736 law remained; this called for “100 acres of unimproved land or 25 acres of improved land had to be owned for at least one year prior to voting” (Encyclopedia of Virginia). Nonetheless, these restrictions continued to exclude women, enslaved people, and poor men. Some colonies also had religious professions as part of their requirements to vote, which given the Protestant majority then excluded Jewish and Catholic settlers.

Voting was generally done either by raising of the hand or voice. Clerks would record each voter’s selection, which would become public record. In a few colonies, like Pennsylvania, they used paper voting tickets but the secret ballot box only became the standard in the 19th century.

The public nature of voting made for lively, and sometimes prolonged, debate. A Boston record from 1757 accounts for a nominated justice that was initially blocked due to reports of being frequently drunk, however after further deliberation it was decided it was within the norms of the town and his nomination was confirmed.

Competition was commonly not based on organized parties (with the exception of Rhode Island) but rather between incumbent candidates and challengers. Existing parties were usually temporary and built around specific issues. Constituents would be vocal in newspapers and letters about candidates who they felt would not represent their interests.

Election Festivities

Election days brought towns together as citizens gathered to vote at local courthouses and town halls. Election sermons would be preached at the start or culmination of election days. The influx of people also made busy days for business and travel. Candidates would take advantage of this and serve drinks and food to potential voters. “Election cake” was first recorded in 1796 but other records reference “cake for the election” (Colonial Records of Connecticut, May 1771).

While enslaved people did not have suffrage, some enslaved communities would host “Negro Election Days” where “attendees elected a king to act as a leader for the local Black community [and] the event also featured dancing, singing and other traditions carried across the Atlantic from West Africa” (Wizevich, Smithsonian). Records of these election days originate from Salem, Connecticut as early as 1741 (Diary of Benjamin Lydle).

Fraud and Bribery

Fraud and bribery was not uncommon in colonial elections. For example, tenants would sell temporary land deeds on election days for men who did not meet property requirements. As the 1770 broadside above from New York recounts, candidates would also threaten voters with unemployment or arrest for prior debts to influence their vote.

Other situations involved running officials who would be elected without living in the area; these disputes would sometimes be settled by codifying residency as a requirement into the local law. The suspicion of fraud and bribery was so pervasive that even British troops prior to the Revolution were prohibited from leaving their barracks to avoid claims of meddling with local elections.

In the months leading up to the call for independence, colonial assemblies began dividing with their respective councils and governors over the matter. As a result, the colonial assemblies transitioned into extralegal conventions, made up of elected men who led the colonies through the Revolution. In 1776, delegates from these conventions who made up the Continental Congress would oversee the approval of the Declaration of Independence. After this, each newly-declared “state” would write individual constitutions in 1776 (with the exception of New York and Georgia). Most of these state constitutions would establish an elected Senate and an elected House of Delegates.